三维语法框架下的高三英语语法高效复习之定语从句
摘要：高三语法复习是高三英语教学的重要组成部分。如何在有限的时间里提高英语语法复习的有效性，帮助学生获得英语二卷的高分？本文将三维语法教学置身于高中英语语法教学真实情境，运用实证研究法，旨在有效提高高考英语全国卷二卷的分数。
关键词：三维语法，语法技能，定语从句，高考二卷
一、引言
语法不仅是一种知识，更是一种技能， 体现为语义、语形和语用“三维性”特征。Leibure曾经这样说，语言是通过实践获得的，而语法使语言更加完美。语言是表情达意的工具，而语法可以使思想更具条理。因此英语教学应该优化语法，而不是淡化语法。
美国著名语言学家Larsen-Freeman(2002)提出了以“形式、意义和使用”为内容和以“语法技能”为目标的“三维语法”。也就是说在语法学习中，学生不仅要了解语言的形式，即语法项目的变化规则，也要弄清该语言形式在具体语境中的意义，更要明白如何在具体情境中使用该语言形式。于润清（2013）指出，将三维语法应用于高中语法教学能促进学生语法学习，不仅能提高学习成绩，还能使学生意识到语法的趣味性和实用性。依据《普通高中英语课程标准（实验）》（以下简称《课标（实验）》），高中英语课程的总目标是培养学生的综合语言运用能力（教育部，2003）。既然三维语法对教学有益，也符合《课标（实验）》培养学生语言运用能力的总体要求，如何将其科学有效地运用于高三英语语法复习和提高学生高考二卷的成绩？本文结合定语从句这一语法项目和2016年高考英语全国卷二卷的题目，深入探讨三维语法指导下，教师如何具体讲形式、意义和使用三者有机结合统一以及具体实践操作中的主要注意事项，目的使学生不仅复习了语法知识，更能够在高考试卷二卷中提高自己的得分。
二、三维语法的基本内涵
形式 l 音位学 l 字系学 l 符号学 l 形态学 l 句法学 （句法模式） 意义\语义学 l 单词（词项） l 派生词素 l 字符串 l 意念
图 1 语法的三个维度
用法\语用学 l 社会功能 l 话语模式
图 2 三维的解释
FROM How is it formed?
MEANING What does it mean?
技能（grammaring）这一术语，
她认为语法技能是继听、说、读、
PRAGMANTICS When/Why is it used?
意义的能力。语法教学时一种动态的过程，
而不是静态的，其目标不能限于了解语言系统，
而是要帮助学生在正确、有意义的基础上，恰当地使用语法，使学生获取语法技能，进而提高学生综合运用语言的能力。
三、三维语法框架下高三英语语法复习之定语从句
语法的三维性体现了语法自身的特征，同时又规定了语法的教学内容的三个层次，进而衍生出能充分反映语法“三维”特征和语法教学的三个层次的“三维”语法教学法。语法的教学的“三维性”是通过教学过程的三个步骤体现的，这三个步骤可概括为简明呈现，有效训练和良好的输出。
（一）简明呈现
“简明”包括两层含义，一是语法呈现简单易懂，呈现语法项目是要以旧带新，承前启后，释之以例，简明扼要，易于理解，便于掌握；而是语言力求言简意赅。
二语习得研究者认为，学习者语法的发展源于对目的语特点的假设。就外语学习者而言， 这种假设更多是基于认知加工而做出的推断。教学中常用的推理方式有两种：一是演绎法，而是归纳法。在实际教学中把两种方法结合使用，互相补充，教学效果会更好。
（二）有效训练
通过不同形式的练习活动对所授语法项目进行有效训练，其目的在于引导学习者在理解的基础上达到熟练应用的程度，为实现输出的自动化做准备。语法练习是为了到达熟练应用和自动化的目的，而熟练应用的标准表现为正确性和流利性。实现正确性和流利性的练习方法有两种：一是机械操练，也叫控制性操练；二是意义训练。
（三）良好输出
输出练习就是实际生活中的说，写练习。Swain(1985, 1983)把输出的功能总结为四个方面：（1）增强流利性。输出可以提供机会对已有的语言资源进行有意义的练习，使表达更流畅。（2）对差别引起注意。在理解语言时候，人们常常只使用语义信息，但是在输出时学习者会遇到形式方面的问题，输出可以使学习者注意到自己语言和目的语之间的差别。（3）对于目的语的形式和结构进行检验。（4）促使学习者对语言形式进行反思。
下面结合定语从句在高三英语语法复习课的课堂实例中说明这三个阶段即呈现阶段——简明呈现；训练阶段——有效训练和使用阶段——良好输出，。
具体课例：三维语法框架下的高三英语语法复习课之定语从句
（一）目标语法的呈现阶段
1. 有意义的导入
授课开始，教师通过让学生进行一个性格测试The Birth-Order Theory of Personality Development ---- A Test，激起学生的好奇心。学生在完成测试了解自己性格的同时，自然获取了定语从句的相关知识。首先让学生翻译测试中选项的句子意义，进而过渡到定语从句，以此由浅入深的进行导入，既可以使学生快速进入课堂学习的状态，又能调动学生参与课堂的积极性，提高学习效率，同时也成功地导入了定语从句这一语法项目。
Complete the sentences by circling the letter, a or b, of the choice that describes you better. 1. I am someone who ____. a. doesn’t like much change b. likes new experiences 2. Other people see me as somebody who __. a. is self-confident b. is a little insecure 3. I am the type of person who ___. 4. In my work or studies, I’m the kind of person that ____. a. likes to be practical and realistic b. likes to be imaginative and creative 5. I am the person who ___. a. enjoys being a leader b. isn’t interested in being a leader 6. Politically, I see myself as someone that __. a. wants to keep things the same b. wants to change things 7. I am the type of person that ___. a. usually follows rules b. is sometimes willing to bend or break rules. According to the birth-order theory, firstborns tend to be practical and follow rules, while laterborns are more likely to be creative and willing to bend or break rules. If you circled a 4 or more times, you show the personality characteristics of a firstborn child; if you circled b 4 or more times, you show the characteristics of a laterborn child. (An only child usually has characteristics similar to those of a firstborn.)
a. tries to dress and act as others do b. tries to dress and act differently
2. 简明呈现，小组合作和教师点拨
再导入知识点之后，由学生来回答定语从句的相关概念，结构和解题技巧，同时老师进行适当的补充，为后续定语从句之解题技巧做好铺垫。
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定语从句 |
the Attributive Clause\the Adjective Clause\the Relative Clause | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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概念 |
在复合句中，用来修饰前面的名词或代词的从句，叫做定语从句或形容词性从句。 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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结构 |
名词或代词（先行词）+ 关系词（代词或副词）+定语从句 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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技巧 |
把先行词放回定语从句中，看它在定语从句中做什么成分，再选择合适的关系代词或副词。 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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公式 |
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（二）语法的有效训练阶段
这种训练不是机械式的模仿与操作，而是在真实的，具体的情境下，将形式和意义结合统一，有效的训练。在本节课的定语从句复习中，教师找到十个切入点即定语从句知识的难点和易错点，结合高考练习让学生在练习中学会归纳和概括。整节复习课又是贯穿着小组竞赛，学生在碰到难点时候可以互相讨论和帮助，在进行技巧归纳时能够用自己的语言总结出通俗易懂的定语从句的解题方法。这种有意义而不是机械的练习使学生有效地掌握了目标语法项目。
Level 1★
1. It was felt in
2. A huge crack _____________was 8 kilometers long and 30 meters wide cut across houses, roads and canals.
3. The number of people __________were killed or seriously injured reached more than 400,000.
4. Then, later that afternoon, another big quake ___________was almost as strong as the first one shook
5. The army organized teams to dig out those ______ were trapped and to bury the dead.
Tip 1 : 定语从句中谓语动词单复数和先行词保持一致。。
KEY: which, which/that, who/that, which/that, who
1. Nothing ______ can be done has been done.
2. I’ve read all the books ________ you lent me.
3. This is the best TV _______ is made in
4. The first museum _______ he visited in
5. The famous writer and his works _____ the radio broadcast have aroused great interest among the students.
6. Who _______ you have ever seen can do it better ?
7. Which one _____you like best is on the desk?
8. This is the very book ____ I am looking for.
9. It is the only cake _____I can sell you now.
10. There is a table ___stands near the window.
11. Our village is no longer the place _______ it used to be.
Tip 2 : 定语从句中only “that”(先行词为物时)
KEY: that
When the antecedent refers to thing(s), “that” is often used in the following cases:
(1) After ordinal number and superlatives（最高级）
(2) After the following words: all, only, little, few, much, very, none, last, just, any(thing), every(thing),some(thing), no(thing).
(3) After two or more antecedents, referring to both person(s) and thing(s).
(4) After interrogative pronouns “which” or “who”.
(5) When the relative pronoun is used as a predictive (表语)in the clause.
(6) When the main clause begins with “there be ”.
(一) 先行词是不定代词或被不定代词修饰的时候，
(二) 先行词是形容词最高级或序数词或被形容词最高级或序数词修饰的时候
(三) 先行词既有人又有物的时候
(四) 当主句是以who, which或what开头的特殊疑问句时
(五) 先行词被the very，the only 修饰的时候
(六) 当主句以There be…结构开头时，或关系代词在there be结构中作实义主语，先行词为物
(七) 当先行词是系动词be后面表语或关系词本身是从句的表语时
12. John invited about 40 people to his wedding, most of ______are family members.
13. Anyone breaks the law is punished.
14. Those break the law are punished.
15. He breaks the law is punished.
16. There’s a beautiful girl came to see you this morning.
17. I met a foreigner dressed in blue _______could speak Chinese well.
Tip 3 : 定语从句中only “who或whom”(先行词为人时)
KEY: whom, who, who, who, who, who
only whom——先行词是人，在介词之后做宾语，只用whom且不省略。
only who——
1. 先行词是one, ones, anyone或those时,及he/she/I / they作先行词时，在定语从句中做主语，只用关系代词用who。
2. 在there be开头的句子中，先行词是人时候，一般关系代词只用who 。
3.先行词后有一个较长的定语，关系代词用who。
18. She heard a terrible noise, ______ brought her heart into her mouth.
19. He built a telescope through _____he could study the skies.
Tip 4: 定语从句中 only “which”(先行词为物时)
KEY: which
In the following cases, “which” is always used.
①After prepositions
②to introduce a non-restrictive attributive clause.
③The whole main sentence is the “antecedent” of the relative clause, and there is always a comma.
(一) 先行词是物，做介词的宾语，只用which而且不省略
(二) 非限制性定语从句只用which指代物
20. This is such a big problem that I cannot solve it alone.
21. This is the same tool that I used last time.（是同一个工具）
22. This is the same tool ____I used last time. （是两个工具）
23. There isn’t so much noise in the country _______ in big cities.
24. Take as many ___you want.
25. _____is known to Chinese,
26. He was strongly against the plan， could be expected．
例外1. such…that…/so…that…是结果状语从句，翻译：如此。。。以至于。。。
例外 2 the same …as…(同类事物)/the same …that …（同一个事物）
Tip 5: 定语从句中 only “as”(有例外哦)KEY: as
26. David, ______you know, is a photographer.
27. Li Ming is late, _______ is often the case.
28. _____ is known to us,
29. Li Ming was late, _______ (=and this) made Mr. Zhang very angry.
30. He married her, ______ was unexpected.
31. I may have to work late, in _______ case I’ll telephone you.
Tip 5: 到底选 “as”还是“which”
KEY: as, as, As, which, which, which
1. which 引导的定语从句只能位于主句后，但as引导的从句可位于主句前、中、后。如：
David, as you know, is a photographer. 戴维是个摄影师，你是知道的。(不可用which)
Li Ming is late, as is often the case. 李明迟到了，这事是经常发生的。(不可用which)
2. as在定语从句中做主语时，从句谓语通常要有be或别的系动词，但which不受此限制。如：
Li Ming was late, which (=and this) made Mr. Zhang very angry. 李明迟到了，这件事使张先生非常生气。(不可用as)
3. as 引导的定语从句只表示一个众所周知或意料之中的事，但 which 不受此限制。如：
He married her, which was unexpected. 他和她结婚了，这是出乎意料的。(不可用as)
4. as有“正如”之意，而which则意为“这(件事，一点)”，可用and this/that/it来代替。
5. as多用于固定搭配中：as is often the case(这是常有的事)，as was expected(不出所料)，as often happens(正如经常发生的那样)，as is known to all(众所周知)，as has been said before(如上所述)，as is mentioned above(正如上面所提到的)等。
注：which 代表整个句子，还可用于in which case, at which point, on which occasion等。如：
Level 3★★★
1）Have you found the book ____________ I paid 29 US dollars?
2) Have you found the book _____________ I spent 29 US dollars?
3) Have you found the book _____________ we learnt a lot?
4) Have you found the book ____________ she often talks?
Tip 6: 定语从句中介词的选用考虑与定语从句谓语动词的搭配习惯)
KEY: for which, on which, from which, about which
5）I will never forget the day _____________ I joined the army.
6) I will never forget the days ____________ I worked in the school.
7) I will never forget the year ____________ my son went to college.
8) I got home at 7:00 p.m. yesterday, ____________most people had had supper.
Tip 7: 定语从句中介词的选用考虑与定语从句的先行词的搭配关系
KEY: on which, during which, in which, by which
9). The chair on which she is sitting is made of wood.
=The chair __________she is sitting on is made of wood.
10). Is this the book which you are looking for?
?????Is this the book for which you are looking?
11). The way ______________he looks at the problems is wrong.
12). The way ___________you chose is wrong.
Tip 8: 定语从句中介词提前与不提前/ 固定动词短语不可拆开/ the way原则
KEY: (that/which), 错误，（in which/that）, (which/that)
Level 4★★★★
1. There is only one student in the school___________ I wanted to see.
2. He is a man of great experience, ____________much can be learnt.
3. The day will come ________ man can make full use of solar energy.
Tip 9: 分隔式定语从句: 先行词（介词短语）或（谓语） +关系词+定语从句
KEY: (who/whom), from whom, when
4. It is I _________ am wrong.
5. It is a dictionary _____________my father bought me.
6. —He wrote a lot of novels, none of ______were popular.
—It’s the same with his wife. She wrote some plays, but none of __________ was a success.
7. He has two sons, but neither of ________ is clever.
He has two sons, neither of ________ is clever.
8. Mr. Smith made a lot of money, most of________ was spent helping the poor.
Mr. Smith made a lot of money, and most of________ was spent helping the poor.
9. ________many times, but he still couldn’t remember.
A. Having been told B. Being told C. Having told D. He was told
Tip 10: 定语从句与强调句和并列句
: 强调句：It is/was + 被强调部分 +that/who + 句子剩余部分
：并列句：简单句+and/but/…+简单句
KEY: that/who, (that/which)，which, them, them, whom, which, it, D
（三）语法的良好输出即综合使用阶段
根据三维语法，学生需要将定语从句的形式和意义融合与使用当中。这一阶段，形式、意义和使用高度统一，形式和意义为使用服务，同时使用巩固形式和意义。而写作和口语是英语学习者综合语言运用能力中不可分割的重要部分，是语言输出的主要途径，也是语言生成能力的重要表现形式。所以，要积极鼓励学生将所学的定语从句口头表达出来并运用到写作中。
因此教师在语言输出部分，先通过高考二卷的语法填空和短文改错，强化提高学生的考试技能。接着进而用名言的作用，引导学生在写作当中背诵定语从句的名言，并且学会使用定语从句来表达写作的要点。
提升训练一、2016高考卷二卷真题定语从句
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提升训练二、定语从句的写作练习
一、定语从句的名言
1. The laughter is the sun that drives winter from the human face. —— Victor Hugo
2. He that make others happy is truly happy. 与人同乐，其乐真乐。
3. He that shoots often shall at last hit the mark. 功到自然成。
4. I love the man that can smile in trouble, that can gather strength from distress and grow brave by reflection. 我喜欢那种在困境中微笑，从忧伤中获得力量，通过反思变得勇敢的人。
5. Friendship is a plant which must be often watered. 友谊之树要常浇水。
6. He who makes no mistakes makes nothing. 不犯错误的人一事无成。
二、Combine the following sentences, using attributive clause and some conjunctions.
l Li Hua is a student.
l She is a girl.
l She is 16.
l Her dad is a teacher.
l Her mother is a teacher, too.
l She is our monitor.
l She is very strict with us.
l This makes us angry.
l We all like her.
Li Hua, a girl student of 16, whose parents are both teachers, is our monitor. She is very strict with us, which makes us angry, but we all like her.
四、结束语
语法的“三维性”决定了语法教学内容的三维性， 进而衍生出与之相适应的“三维语法”教学法。三维语法教学对教学资源的要求不高，具有广泛的可操作性。它不要求改变教材中语法的布局，不会打乱正常的教学计划，符合英语学习者的学习特点，适应外语环境下的英语教学实际。三维语法教学是个动态的过程，其动态性要求教学步骤和教学手段相应具有灵活性。
在高三英语复习的第一轮有效地把三维语法教学和高考卷二卷的习题有效结合，既可以提高二卷语法填空和短文改错的正确率，同时也可以在写作方面得到提高。为了实现语法的有效复习，教师需要加强三维语法理论知识的学习，尤其不能孤立三维，只聚焦形式或聚焦意义，要正确树立三维间内在相互影响相互作用。教师可以设计贴近学生生活实际的例句和丰富多样的教学活动让学生在使用语法，有意识地培养学生的语法技能。
参考文献
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